On

 Theories of Crime Causation


1. A resident in an informal settlement in Manila notices that because people are constantly moving in and out, the community lacks the 'collective efficacy' needed to stop local teenagers from engaging in vandalism. Which theory best explains this situation?

A. Control theory

B. Strain theory

C. Rational choice theory

D. Social disorganization theory


Answer: D



2. A person decides to engage in 'akyat-bahay' (burglary) because they believe the chances of being caught are low and the potential profit from stolen gadgets is high. This 'weighing' of consequences aligns with which theory?

A. Rational choice theory

B. Social disorganization theory

C. Control theory

D. Strain theory


Answer: A



3. An individual in a poverty-stricken area wants to provide a comfortable life for their family but lacks the education or job opportunities to do so legally. Consequently, they turn to selling illegal drugs. This represents which theory?

A. Rational choice theory

B. Strain theory

C. Social disorganization theory

D. Control theory


Answer: B



4. According to Travis Hirschi, most people do not commit crimes because they have strong 'attachments' to parents and 'commitment' to their future careers. Which theory is this?

A. Strain theory

B. Social disorganization theory

C. Rational choice theory

D. Control theory


Answer: D



5. Which theory would suggest that increasing police visibility and improving street lighting in a dark alley will deter a snatcher because it increases the risk of being caught?

A. Rational choice theory

B. Control theory

C. Strain theory

D. Social disorganization theory


Answer: A



6. The 'Concentric Zone Model' by Shaw and McKay identifies 'Zone II' (the Zone in Transition) as having the highest crime rates regardless of which ethnic group lives there. This finding supports which theory?

A. Rational choice theory

B. Control theory

C. Social disorganization theory

D. Strain theory


Answer: C



7. A government employee refuses to take a bribe because they strongly believe in the integrity of the law and do not want to jeopardize their 20 years of service toward a pension. This is an application of:

A. Control theory

B. Social disorganization theory

C. Rational choice theory

D. Strain theory


Answer: A



8. A student who feels they can never pass their board exams through hard study chooses to cheat because society only cares about the 'passing' result, not the process. Robert Merton would classify this under:

A. Rational choice theory

B. Control theory

C. Strain theory

D. Social disorganization theory


Answer: C



9. Which theory emphasizes that the certainty of being caught is more effective at preventing crime than the severity of the final punishment?

A. Control theory

B. Rational choice theory

C. Strain theory

D. Social disorganization theory


Answer; B



10. In a neighborhood where neighbors do not know each other and do not care if children skip school or loiter, crime begins to flourish because there is no 'informal social control.' This is the core of:

A. Social disorganization theory

B. Control theory

C. Rational choice theory

D. Strain theory


Answer: A



11. Which body type is characterized by a prevalence of muscle, bone, and connective tissue, often described as athletic and aggressive?

A. Dysplastic

B. Ectomorph

C. Endomorph

D. Mesomorph


Answer: D. Mesomorphs possess the rectangular, hard, and muscular build that Sheldon specifically linked to a higher propensity for delinquent behavior.


Sheldon described mesomorphs as muscular and athletic and associated them with higher rates of delinquency.


Endomorphs are characterized by soft roundness and large digestive viscera rather than muscularity.



12. According to William Sheldon, which temperament is most commonly associated with the Endomorph body type?

A. Cerebrotonic

B. Somatotonic

C. Psychopathic

D. Viscerotonic


Answer: D. Viscerotonic individuals are characterized as relaxed, sociable, and fond of comfort, aligning with the Endomorphic build.



13. In the study of Criminal Anthropology, which somatotype is statistically most likely to engage in predatory or violent crimes?

A. Mesomorph

B. Endomorph

C. Balanced type

D. Ectomorph


Answer: A. Sheldon's research suggested that the physical robustness and Somatotonic temperament of Mesomorphs made them more prone to delinquency.


Sheldon's studies reported that mesomorphs were overrepresented among delinquent groups.



14. A person with a 'linear and fragile' build, characterized by a flat chest and slender limbs, belongs to which somatotype?

A. Mesomorph

B. Athletic

C. Ectomorph

D. Endomorph


Answer: C. The Ectomorph is defined by a lack of muscle and fat, resulting in a lean, delicate, and 'skinny' appearance.



15. What is the primary focus of the Cerebrotonic temperament associated with the Ectomorph?

A. Mental restraint

B. Physical action

C. Socialization

D. Emotional lability


Answer: A. Cerebrotonics are characterized by introversion, hypersensitivity, and a tendency toward mental over-intensity and restraint.


Cerebrotonic individuals were described as introverted, restrained, and intellectually oriented.



16. William Sheldon's somatotyping used a scoring system for each body component. What is the score range for each trait?

A. 1 to 7

B. 1 to 5

C. 1 to 10

D. 0 to 100


Answer: A. Sheldon rated each component (Endomorphy, Mesomorphy, Ectomorphy) on a scale from 1 (minimum) to 7 (maximum).



17. Which somatotype is described as having 'soft roundness' throughout various regions of the body with a tendency to easily gain fat?

A. Ectomorph

B. Endomorph

C. Pyknic

D. Mesomorph


Answer: B. Endomorphs are characterized by the prominence of the digestive system and a soft, spherical body shape.


Endomorph — Soft, rounded body with a tendency to accumulate fat.



18. The 'Somatotonic' temperament is best defined by which of the following behavioral patterns?

A. Need for privacy

B. Fear of people

C. Lust for power

D. Love of luxury


Answer: C. Somatotonics are characterized by a desire for power, dominance, risk-taking, and physical courage.


Somatotonic temperament emphasizes assertiveness, dominance, physical activity, and risk-taking.



19. Which of the following describes the 'Somatotype' theory's position on the cause of crime?

A. Social learning

B. Economic status

C. Rational choice

D. Biological determinism


Answer: D. Somatotyping belongs to the biological school of criminology, suggesting body structure determines behavior and temperament.


Biological determinism — This is the best answer in the context of traditional criminology. A more precise wording would be that the theory emphasizes constitutional or biological influences rather than claiming body type alone completely determines criminal behavior.



20. If a person is described as an 'Asthenic' type in Ernst Kretschmer's system, which of Sheldon's somatotypes do they most closely resemble?

A. Ectomorph

B. Endomorph

C. Leptosome

D. Mesomorph


Answer: A. Both the Asthenic and Ectomorph types refer to individuals who are thin, small-boned, and slender.


Kretschmer's Asthenic (Leptosome) type most closely corresponds to Sheldon's Ectomorph.



21. Barangay Bagong Sikat is known for high rates of poverty, high population mobility, and dilapidated housing. Residents rarely know their neighbors, and local community organizations fail to sustain youth programs. As a result, juvenile delinquency in the area has consistently risen over the years. Which criminological theory best explains the delinquency rate in this barangay?

A. Differential Association Theory

B. Social Disorganization Theory

C. Strain Theory

D. Labeling Theory


Answer: B. Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory asserts that crime rates are elevated in communities characterized by economic deprivation, high population mobility, and weak social cohesion, which impair the community’s ability to informally control resident behavior.



22. Marco, a high school student from a low-income family, dreams of going to college and becoming a successful businessman. However, due to severe financial hardship and lack of scholarships, he realizes he cannot achieve this goal through legitimate means. Desperate to maintain a high standard of living, he decides to join a local syndicate selling illegal drugs. Under Merton’s Strain Theory, what mode of adaptation is Marco demonstrating?

A. Conformity

B. Innovation

C. Ritualism

D. Retreatism


Answer: B. Innovation

According to Robert Merton’s Strain Theory, Innovation occurs when an individual accepts culturally prescribed goals (financial success) but lacks access to legitimate means, choosing instead to utilize illegitimate/illegal means to achieve them.

Conformity — accepts goals + accepts legitimate means

Innovation — accepts goals + rejects legitimate means

Ritualism — abandons/reduces goals + continues legitimate means

Retreatism — rejects both goals and means

Rebellion — rejects existing goals and means and seeks to replace them



23. John, an adolescent with no prior criminal record, spent his summer hanging out with a neighborhood gang. Through daily interactions, he learned not only the physical techniques of shoplifting and pickpocketing, but also specific rationalizations and attitudes favorable to breaking the law. Eventually, John began stealing from local stores himself. Which theory best describes John’s path to delinquency?

A. Labeling Theory

B. Strain Theory

C. Differential Association Theory

D. Social Disorganization Theory


Answer: C. Differential Association Theory

Edwin Sutherland’s Differential Association Theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through communication within intimate personal groups, where an individual learns both the techniques and the specific motives, drives, and attitudes toward crime.



24. Carlo, a 16-year-old boy, was caught vandalizing a school wall for the first time. The school administration publicly branded him as a "hardcore delinquent" and expelled him. Teachers and neighbors began treating him as a criminal, constantly watching him with suspicion. Feeling excluded by law-abiding peers, Carlo fully embraced the reputation, joined an organized crime group, and began committing violent offenses. Carlo's escalation into serious criminal behavior illustrates which concept?

A. Primary Deviance

B. Secondary Deviance

C. Strain Adaptation

D. Cultural Transmission


Answer: B. Secondary Deviance

Under Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert’s Labeling Theory, Secondary Deviance refers to deviant behavior that results as a reaction to society’s negative labeling and stigma, causing the individual to accept the offender identity and commit further crimes.



25. Aries works as a middle-management clerk. He realizes he will never reach executive status or acquire wealth (the cultural goal), but he strictly adheres to company rules, works overtime, and follows every bureaucratic procedure to avoid getting into trouble or losing his job. According to Merton's Strain Theory, what mode of adaptation is Aries displaying?

A. Rebellion

B. Retreatism

C. Ritualism

D. Conformity


Answer: C. Ritualism

Ritualism occurs when an individual rejects or lowers the cultural goals of material success but continues to rigidly abide by institutionalized norms and rules out of habit or fear of security loss.



26. An urban municipality experiences a sudden influx of displaced workers due to factory closures. As transient boarders move in and out, physical decay sets in, local business participation drops, and informal social controls break down. Crime rates spike despite individual residents having diverse personal backgrounds. A criminologist assessing the municipality concludes that the physical environment and structural breakdown of the community itself—rather than individual traits—are driving the crime rate. This assessment aligns with:

A. Labeling Theory

B. Differential Association Theory

C. Social Disorganization Theory

D. General Strain Theory


Answer: C. Social Disorganization Theory

Social Disorganization Theory shifts the focus of criminology from individual traits to macro-level environmental factors, pointing to structural failures in the community as the primary source of high crime rates.



27. A person enters a store, secretly places an item in their jacket, and leaves without paying to keep the item for themselves. What classification of crime best describes this act?

A. Situational crime

B. Instant crime

C. Acquisitive crime

D. Extinctive crime


Answer: C. 

Acquisitive crime — The act involves taking property unlawfully for personal gain.



28. Which of the following acts is the best example of an acquisitive crime?

A. Striking someone in the heat of a verbal argument

B. Diverting company funds into a personal bank account for private gain

C. Damaging public property out of immediate situational anger

D. Allowing a legal obligation to expire due to a lapse of time


Answer: B. 

Diverting company funds into a personal bank account for private gain — Embezzlement is a classic example of an acquisitive crime.



29. What is the primary defining feature of an acquisitive crime?

A. It relies entirely on an immediate, unplanned opportunity in the environment.

B. It is legally completed the exact millisecond the physical act takes place.

C. It involves the unlawful taking or acquiring of property or money for personal benefit.

D. It results in the legal loss or extinguishment of a victim's civil rights.


Answer: C. 

It involves the unlawful taking or acquiring of property or money for personal benefit. — This captures the core definition of an acquisitive crime.



30. Burglary, robbery, and fraud are all grouped under which broader criminological category?

A. Extinctive offenses

B. Acquisitive offenses

C. Instant offenses

D. Situational offenses


Answer: B. 

Acquisitive offenses — All three involve acquiring property or money illegally for personal benefit.



31. Why is "situational crime" distinct from an "acquisitive crime"?

A. Situational crime focuses on environmental opportunities rather than whether property was acquired for personal gain.

B. Situational crime only applies to violent offenses against individuals.

C. Situational crime is a civil term referring to the loss of contractual rights.

D. Situational crime requires a crime to be committed continuously over a long duration.


Answer: A. 

Situational crime focuses on environmental opportunities rather than whether property was acquired for personal gain. — Situational describes the environmental trigger, not the goal/nature of taking property.



32. In legal terminology, why is "extinctive" not considered a standard category for crimes like theft or embezzlement?

A. It refers exclusively to crimes completed in a single moment, such as battery.

B. It refers to opportunistically committed crimes driven by immediate circumstances.

C. It applies to offenses that involve stealing physical goods rather than financial assets.

D. It is a civil law concept usually related to the extinguishment of rights or obligations.


Answer: D. 

It is a civil law concept usually related to the extinguishment of rights or obligations. — "Extinctive" is not a standard criminal classification.



33. According to the Classical School of Criminology, led by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, what is the primary basis of criminal liability and human action?

A. Biological determinism and inherited physical traits

B. Free will, rational choice, and hedonism

C. Environmental, economic, and social deprivations

D. Involuntary reflexes and psychological trauma


Correct Answer: B. 

The Classical School of Criminology rests on the premise that human beings possess free will and are rational actors who calculate pain versus pleasure (hedonism) before acting. Under this theory—which forms a major foundation of the Philippine Revised Penal Code—punishment must be proportional to the gravity of the offense to act as a deterrent.



34. How does the Neo-Classical Theory modify the strict "absolute free will" doctrine of Classical Criminology?

A. It rejects free will entirely and attributes all crimes to demon possession.

B. It advocates for equal, severe punishment for all offenders regardless of age or mental condition.

C. It introduces exceptions to free will, accounting for mitigating factors such as age, lunacy, and diminished capacity.

D. It focuses strictly on changing the victim's behavior to reduce criminal opportunities.


Correct Answer: C. 

Neo-Classical Theory modifies the strict assumption of absolute free will by recognizing that certain circumstances may reduce or eliminate an individual's capacity for free choice. Examples include minority, insanity or imbecility, and certain circumstances affecting the offender's capacity to act freely. In Philippine criminal law, related concepts appear in the exempting circumstances under Article 12 and mitigating circumstances under Article 13 of the Revised Penal Code.



35. Which core belief distinguishes Positivist Criminology (pioneered by Cesare Lombroso, Enrico Ferri, and Raffaele Garofalo) from the Classical School?

A. Crime is a result of calculated choices made by moral actors.

B. Criminal behavior is determined by internal (biological/psychological) and external (sociological) factors.

C. The sole purpose of criminal justice is harsh retribution.

D. Penalties should be uniform regardless of the offender's personal background.


Correct Answer: B. 

Positivist criminology emphasizes determinism and seeks scientific explanations for criminal behavior. It examines biological, psychological, and sociological factors that may contribute to offending, rather than treating crime solely as the result of free and rational choice.



36. Cesare Lombroso proposed that certain individuals are born criminals who exhibit physical evolutionary throwbacks. What term did he use to describe these individuals?

A. Anomic offenders

B. Atavistic stigmata / Atavists

C. Somatotypes

D. Psychopathic personalities


Correct Answer: B.

Cesare Lombroso proposed the concept of atavism, arguing that some "born criminals" possessed physical characteristics resembling those of primitive human ancestors. This theory became an early biological explanation of criminal behavior but is no longer scientifically accepted.



37. According to Robert K. Merton's Strain Theory, why may individuals engage in deviant or criminal behavior?

A. Because society promotes cultural goals while legitimate means of achieving them are unequally available.

B. Because individuals learn criminal behavior from intimate peer groups.

C. Because criminal justice agencies label certain individuals as criminals.

D. Because criminal behavior results from conflict among the Id, Ego, and Superego.


Correct Answer: A

Explanation: Merton's Strain Theory proposes that deviance may occur when society emphasizes culturally approved goals, such as financial success, but does not provide equal access to legitimate means of achieving those goals. This gap can create strain and may lead some individuals to pursue illegitimate means.5. 



38. Which theory, as a modern extension of the Classical School, posits that an individual evaluates personal factors, risk of getting caught, and expected reward before committing a crime?

A. Social Control Theory

B. Rational Choice Theory

C. Differential Association Theory

D. Routine Activity Theory


Correct Answer: B. 

Rational Choice Theory views criminal behavior as involving decision-making in which offenders consider the perceived benefits, costs, risks, and opportunities associated with a particular offense. It is regarded as a modern development of classical ideas concerning choice, free will, and deterrence.



Dispute Resolution and Crisis/Incident Management Review Questions 1


Human Behavior and Victimology